Rulers were the only individuals considered worthy of being immortalized on canvas. Jnsdttir, in a discussion dealing with medieval Icelandic manuscripts, yet clearly applicable to our field as well, states that such scenes are not likely to be pictures of donors, because [they] do not show what they are giving, or whether they are giving anything at all.Footnote 4 Only representations of an actual donation are donor portraits, she maintains. 1.15).Footnote 25 On average, supplicants are smaller than the holy figures, but not exaggeratedly so, although there is also considerable variation from image to image. Here are five ways to collect the data you need to get started. [10] Another tradition which had pre-Christian precedent was royal or imperial images showing the ruler with a religious figure, usually Christ or the Virgin Mary in Christian examples, with the divine and royal figures shown communicating with each other in some way. Renaissance explorers were fortunate enough to unearth a collection of gorgeous yet haunting funeral portraits from the Roman province of Faiyum in Egypt. hasContentIssue false, The Vicissitudes of Contact between Human and Divine, Introduction: Methodologies for the Study of Donor Portraits, The History and Problematic of the Donor Portrait, On Meaning in Portraits: The Knot of Intention and the Question of the Patrons Share, Awaiting the End after the End: Sin, Absolution, and the Afterlife, Exchange and Non-Exchange: The Gift between Human and Divine, The Literal, the Symbolic, and the Contact Portrait: On Belief in the Interaction between Human and Divine, Postscript: The Problem of Terminology Again: Donor Portraits and Contact Portraits. Donor depicted in humble prayer. The advantage that this representation has over all the later imperial images that concede to the desire for contact is precisely that here the emperor is supreme in the visual field. In family groups the figures are usually divided by gender. 1.12).Footnote 19 The tradition picks up again shortly after the restoration of images with the emperor in proskynesis before Christ in the narthex of the Church of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, usually dated to the late ninth or early tenth centuries, and Leo in the Leo Bible of 93040 (see Figs. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. *A note on GDPR:In order to collect, process, store, and use personal data and information for supporters located in the EU, you need to have the right consent (a specific, informed and unambiguous indication of the subjects wishes). With every campaign, every new event, you should be thinking data capture. James WEALE, Gnalogie de la famille Morales, in Le Beffroi, 18641865, pp 179196. Brooklyn-based artist Brenda Zlamany, who painted a . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000. Seriously. Indeed, there is a sense in which Manuel is much closer to Theodore than to Oliver. 19v, first half of the twelfth century. Furthermore, the royal couple, less bold, insistent, and assertive than, say, Oliver, turn toward him, and incline their heads respectfully, Zoe more than Constantine. Google and each of the major social media channels offer users at least a very basic analytical function and insight. If a regular person was featured in a painting, they were depicted as partaking in a recognizable religious scene such as the birth or death of Christ. An image such as this, showing both ownership and royal power, relates strongly to imperial iconography in general, and a comparison between these portraits and some of the key images in the imperial repertoire proves highly illuminating. Copyright 2007-2023 & BIG THINK, BIG THINK PLUS, SMARTER FASTER trademarks owned by Freethink Media, Inc. All rights reserved. Velzquez (Diego Rodrguez de Silva y Velzquez). . For a long time, portraiture no longer existed as its own genre. Once again, the emperors specifically do not proffer their gifts to the holy recipients, even though it would be easy for them to do so. } If we compare these images with that of Theodore Metochites in the Kariye Camii in Fig. Also in Ravenna, there is a small mosaic of Justinian, possibly originally of Theoderic the Great in the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo. 26 October 2018. During the Middle Ages the donor figures often were shown on a far smaller scale than the sacred figures; a change dated by Dirk Kocks to the 14th century, though earlier examples in manuscripts can be found. 1333. V, no 213. Collecting the data* you need to create your donor portrait. And not least, their spectacular gold costumes create a display more impressive than Christs relatively subdued blue robes. Broad brush strokes combined with bold colors give the portraits an impressionistic effect. An Old Babylonian seal in the Oriental Institute Museum in Chicago represents the sun-god Shamash on the right, and a worshiper bearing a kid in his left arm, his right arm raised in prayer (17001530 BC, Fig. 1162) e dellevangeliario greco Urbinate (cod. Figure 1.21: Hadrian sacrificing to Diana, sculpture, Arch of Constantine, Rome, after AD 130. They are all focused on the altar, which is the culmination point of their procession, and the place where they will perform their sacred rite. Figure 1.2: Despot Oliver, painting in narthex, Church of the Holy Archangels, Lesnovo, FYR Macedonia, 1341. The term ktetor, by contrast, concerns primarily the individual and the material objects he or she possesses. [22] In an often-quoted passage, John Pope-Hennessy caricatured 16th-century Italian donors:[23], In Italy donors, or owners, were rarely depicted as the major religious figures, but in the courts of Northern Europe there are several examples of this in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, mostly in small panels not for public viewing. 1.7). Hans Memlings portraits of Tommaso and Maria Portinari (14.40.626-27), painted around 1470, were also probably meant to flank the image of a saint in a small triptych, yet each likeness fills a whole panel and has the emphasis of a portrait in its own right. The image is not built on the binary opposition of power vs. submission, since nobody appears weak within it. Amongst a large bibliography, see also R. Cormack, The Emperor at St Sophia: Viewer and Viewed, in A. Guillou and J. Durand (eds. Franses uses the theories of Pierre Bourdieu in particular, notably his contentions that contradictory structures of belief are . In the coronation, however, rather than being lessened by their encounter with the ultimate power in the universe, the emperors come away from it with their own status enhanced. The resulting image is thus a delicately balanced compromise, highly sensitive to the subtle gradings of power. Mimesis. Though portraiture briefly disappeared, the genre was resurrected and revolutionized by painters from Germany and the Netherlands. 38 O. Demus, The Mosaics of Norman Sicily (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1949), 82; E. Kitzinger, The Mosaics of St Marys of the Admiral in Palermo (Washington: Dumbarton Oaks, 1990), especially 10506 and 197206. If youre swimming in numbers it can be hard to make sense of them, so think carefully about the fields you need, and keep your analysis focussed. Figure 1.25: Conquest and Clemency relief of Marcus Aurelius, Museo del Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome, AD 17680. Can you see a picture forming, an outline of your typical charity donor? It is not to establish a relationship with an all-powerful Christ whose aid one desperately seeks at the most critical hour, but to impress the observer with their authority. In this scene Constantine has in his hands a model of the walled city of Constantinople, in reference to his construction of the city walls, while Justinian has a model of the Church of Hagia Sophia, in reference to his reconstruction of the building. It thus places emphasis on an almost legal aspect of possession. It corresponds to no. Follow these four steps to get organized: 1. See also A. Beihammer, S. Constantinou, and M. Parani (eds. III: Codices 604866 (Vatican: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 193750), 109; P. Canart and V. Peri, Sussidi bibliografici per i manoscritti Greci della Biblioteca Vaticana (Vatican: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1970), 463. However, there are also other elements in the image that militate against it being defined as a true donor portrait. As you start to find the basic shape, dig into the details and look for commonalities across your supporter base. Although many are of the high administrative classes, there are also a number of simple citizens with no particular status or rank who appear in the images as well. It isnt just about their latest gift, its about their history with you, the number of times theyve given, how they give, and the average gift amount are all important factors to consider. Over the next few centuries, portraiture would receive numerous other noteworthy overhauls. 680850). The discoveries at Faiyum give art historians an impression of what naturalistic portraits looked like before the Renaissance, a period which continues to define the genre to this day. These images share some elements of the contact-laden donation of Theodore, but ultimately have more in common with coronation iconography. More remarkable still is Drers position. Imperial iconography, of course, has as its core purpose the assertion of imperial authority and privilege. [19] Normally the main figures ignore the presence of the interlopers in narrative scenes, although bystanding saints may put a supportive hand on the shoulder in a side-panel. The three-quarter face, which allows for greater engagement between sitter and viewer, was also widely favored. Before the 15th century a physical likeness may not have often been attempted, or achieved; the individuals depicted may in any case often not have been available to the artist, or even alive. John and Irene are more upright and frontal than Zoe and Constantine, and their size relative to the holy figures has been increased. To fundraise successfully, you cant rely on industry averages. [9] Another tradition which had pre-Christian precedent was royal or imperial images showing the ruler with a religious figure, usually Christ or the Virgin Mary in Christian examples, with the divine and royal figures shown communicating with each other in some way. The person presenting might be a courtier making a gift to his prince, but is often the author or the scribe, in which cases the recipient had actually paid for the manuscript.[17]. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/neth/hd_neth.htm, https://books.google.com/books?id=H-Fngn-m6-0C&pg=PA98&lpg=PA98&dq=%22donor+portrait%22&source=web&ots=bp4HescUA-&sig=1lj10erLxRS_3RUavFBFBGMVfDg&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA97,M1, http://www.nga.gov/cgi-bin/pinfo?Object=56+0+none, https://books.google.com/books?id=xT9w9uHtyWwC&pg=PA303&lpg=PA303&dq=%22donor+portrait%22&source=web&ots=X0VdBSRZBR&sig=UXiG-4YSsd-pfK2tVbS2u-_IZeA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct=result#PPA302,M1, http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/arth214_folder/burgundian_frontispieces.html. Even if true supplicants, fervent and humble, seeking contact and the opportunity to deliver a plea, Leo and Theodore are also ktetors, and these images cannot help but speak of social status too. Further, the central block has considerable visual mass, as the enthroned Christ and the personifications of Justice and Mercy who whisper the virtues of the emperors in his ears occupy more surface area than either of the two solitary figures beneath. 13 The Vatican manuscript under discussion here is one of two imperial commissions of the Panoplia still extant, the other being Mosq. The frescoes are in the Poggi Chapel, in, Ainsworth, Maryan W. "Intentional Alterations of Early Netherlandish Painting". [7], At least in Northern Italy, as well as the grand altarpieces and frescos by leading masters that attract most art-historical attention, there was a more numerous group of small frescoes with a single saint and donor on side-walls, that were liable to be re-painted as soon as the number of candles lit before them fell off, or a wealthy donor needed the space for a large fresco-cycle, as portrayed in a 15th-century tale from Italy:[8]. Figure 1.3: Coronation of John II Komnenos and his son Alexios, Gospels, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican, Urb. One of the reasons for this is the introduction of proskynesis into the scene. Weve all heard of Gwendolyn Giver the stereotypical supporter (just in case you havent, shes female, aged 45 to 60 and loves to give, preferably with cash). Thus the ruler does not engage with Christ or beseech him. A portrait depicting the giver of a work of art or architecture in company with holy figures (Jesus, the Virgin, or saints); the convention goes back at least as far From: The result is an image that primarily retains an aura of command, and demonstrates the forceful activity of the emperor in the world as builder and owner of property. English, French, and Italian (to cite some of the languages in which studies on Byzantine art appear) call these scenes donor portraits and the lay figures donors (donateurs, commitenti). In this context, it is also worth considering the iconographic type in which the patrons do not make an offering to the holy figure, as we have seen in the Akropolites figures on the Hodeghetria icon in Moscow, and Manuel in Kastoria (Figs. He is by some margin the largest figure in the scene, and he sits frontally. From: donor portrait in The Oxford Dictionary of the Renaissance Subjects: History Early Modern History (1500 to 1700) Reference entries This is a deeply orthodox emperor, but not a humble one. Donor portraits appear in altarpieces and are essential parts of devotional diptychs and triptychs; in these smaller works used for worship in the home, a single sitter, a husband and wife, or a donor and his patron saint face a devotional image, such as the Virgin and Child, in an attitude of prayer. To save content items to your account, 41 Von Simson, Sacred Fortress, 2729. Further, the specific action of Christ laying his hands upon the heads of the two emperors narrates how they come to have this power. Total loading time: 0 At the same time, their frontal perspective and accentuated facial features serve as precursors to Byzantine icon painting. In the Early Middle Ages, a group of mosaic portraits in Rome of Popes who had commissioned the building or rebuilding of the churches containing them show standing figures holding models of the building, usually among a group of saints. [12] In subsequent centuries bishops, abbots and other clergy were the donors most commonly shown, other than royalty, and they remained prominently represented in later periods. Figure 1.5: John Komnenos and Irene with the Virgin, mosaic in south gallery of the Church of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, 111834. What the author is interested in is the bigger picture: the ways in which 'donor portraits' can lead to an understanding of the ways in which the Byzantine world operated, its systems, structures and values. 27 B. Buchanan, Catalogue of Ancient Near Eastern Seals in the Ashmolean Museum, vol. But what if we told you she doesnt exist? The panel is also the subject of a study by E. Dimitriadou, The Lunette Mosaic in the Southwest Vestibule of Hagia Sophia at Constantinople: A Reconsideration, Ph.D. thesis, Courtauld Institute of Art (2010). This reading provides a solution to the unusual features that appeared when the image was taken as a donor portrait. In their standing posture, they are about a head taller than Christ is seated, making for the clever compromise of appearing to be bigger than Christ within the picture, even though we know that Christ is larger in absolute terms. Seriously. Memling seems to have replaced a generalized portrait of the wife of, The elder sons also seem very like younger versions of their father's portrait, John Pope-Hennessy (see Further reading), 2223, quoted in Roberts, 27, note 83. [27], A further secular development was the portrait histori, where groups of portrait sitters posed as historical or mythological figures. Donor portraits have a continuous history from late antiquity, and the portrait in the 6th-century manuscript the Vienna Dioscurides may well reflect a long-established classical tradition, just as the author portraits found in the same manuscript are believed to do. In Florence, where there was already a tradition of including portraits of city notables in crowd scenes (mentioned by Leon Battista Alberti), the Procession of the Magi by Benozzo Gozzoli (145961), which admittedly was in the private chapel of the Palazzo Medici, is dominated by the glamorous procession containing more portraits of the Medici and their allies than can now be identified. Paintings either depicted deceased saints or characters from the Bible, which were drawn from description and imagination rather than references. Yet, against this imposing group, the emperors hold their own. Each pursues the goal of contact in very dissimilar ways, and each functions differently within its own economy of belief. framed: 54.3 x 35.5 x 9.2 cm (21 3/8 x 14 x 3 5/8 in.) 1.16, 1.17, 1.18, 1.21, 1.22, 1.23). 1.14),Footnote 24 as well as the full-size monk Theophanes in the Gospel of Theophanes in Melbourne (National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Felton Bequest, 1960 (7105), fol. The conventional aspects of portraiture ensure that each example will bear some resemblance to the next, and yet this general similarity makes the distinctive qualities of each one the more salient. As early as 1336, the Italian poet Petrarch commissioned the Sienna-based painter Simone Martini to create a painting of his muse, countess Laura de Noves. [15] The Wilton Diptych of Richard II of England was a forerunner of these. In this respect, both the Antioch mosaic and the Byzantine images can be contrasted to the standard Roman scene. Power still radiates from the lay figure, but we are not told how he comes to be in possession of it. 36 A. Moortgat, Art of Ancient Mesopotamia (London: Phaidon, 1969), 13940; H. Frankfort, Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1954), 9091. The Literal, the Symbolic, and the Contact Portrait: On Belief in the Interaction between Human and Divine. We all employ heuristics to help us deal with the world. The Romans, too, occasionally represent the deity who is the beneficiary of the sacrifice in this way, although it is the Greeks who do it most commonly. Networks and connections:In a world where youre just six degrees from your next big opportunity, you need to be flagging those networks and connections so that you can see (and start to join) the dots. This second aspect of portraiture comes across in the considerable conservatism of the genre: most portraits produced in Renaissance and Baroque Europe follow one of a very small range of conventional formats. In fact half of the 83 14th-century Venetian images, in what is intended to be a complete catalogue by Roberts, are of this group type. King, 129. The terms are not used very consistently by art historians, as Angela Marisol Roberts points out,[1] and may also be used for smaller religious subjects that were probably made to be retained by the commissioner rather than donated to a church. However, by and large, the classification does capture the majority of the scenes in the corpus. Petrus Christus used this format in his portrait of a Carthusian monk (49.7.19), which places the sitter in a simply characterized interior, with a horizontal element like a windowsill at the bottom and a glow of light in the left background. This speaks volumes about the change of tenor in the images. 1.25).Footnote 37. Often, even late into the Renaissance, the donor portraits, especially when of a whole family, will be at a much smaller scale than the principal figures, in defiance of linear perspective. Not sure if youve got the right information to work with? Displaying portraits in a public place was also an expression of social status; donor portraits overlapped with tomb monuments in churches, the other main way of achieving these ends, although donor portraits had the advantage that the donor could see them displayed in his own lifetime. In some of these diptychs the portrait of the original owner has been over-painted with that of a later one. King Louis XIV - who ruled France as an absolute monarch - understood that art was political, as it reflected the monarch and state. Follow these and use them to create sub-groups and start segmenting your audience. Drawing from a variety of sources including Rogier van der Weyden, Robert Campin, and Jan van Eyck, Memling formed part of the second generation of Northern Renaissance painters (also known as the Flemish Primitives), who further . Ktetor focuses on the fact that an object is owned by someone. This study focuses primarily on donor portraits of families found in Cypriot wall paintings and icons created during the Lusignan and Venetian periods. They are not dwarfed by Christ. Ist. @free.kindle.com emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. One of the most famous and striking groups of Baroque donor portraits are those of the male members of the Cornaro family, who sit in boxes as if at the theatre to either side of the sculpted altarpiece of Gian Lorenzo Bernini's Ecstasy of St Theresa (1652). But over time you will build not one, but a series of donor portraits a data-driven analysis of your audience and a deeper understanding of the people that give to your cause. Even at its stiffest and most awkward, as in the case of George of Antioch at the Church of the Martorana in Palermo, it is always profoundly human and full of emotion (c. 1140, Fig. Over time, portraiture became known as one of if not the most intimate of genres, establishing a connection between painter and subject. In Byzantium, however, the prostration can be much more complete, with the back parallel to the ground and the head lowered. For example, the opening night selection, at 6 p.m. April 26 at the Lincoln Theatre, is the documentary "Hargrove," writer-director Eliane Henri's portrait of iconic jazz musician Roy . Note that endowed funds have minimum required amounts. It is as though the celebrants cannot see them, and do not believe what the image itself represents: that the gods are present before them. This all makes even more sense when we consider the nature of the manuscript in which these images appear. As our Marcus Aurelius example demonstrates, when conquered peoples kneel before the Roman emperor in submission, they are still relatively dignified, with backs and heads upright (see Fig. Theodore, for example, leans forward imploringly, his brow knitted in consternation, as Christ remains sealed within his own energy field. A portrait is typically defined as a representation of a specific individual, such as the artist might meet in life. E. Childs (New York: Praeger, 1967), 5658. [17] A later convention was for figures at about three-quarters of the size of the main ones. While representation of the middle class was considered the norm in Holland, other, more politically conservative European countries saw their painters stick with royalty and nobility. 42 Kleiner, Roman Sculpture, 9099. A portrait was often commissioned at a significant moment in someones life, such as betrothal, marriage, or elevation to an office. With this in mind it is interesting to turn to one of the best-known images in Byzantine art, the Justinian panel in the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, which shows the emperor holding a gift of a gold paten in his hands (church consecrated 548, Fig. Share A brief overview of the history of European portraiture on Facebook, Share A brief overview of the history of European portraiture on Twitter, Share A brief overview of the history of European portraiture on LinkedIn, The funeral portraits uncovered at Faiyum are more than four thousand years old. the only contingency they did not envisage was what actually occurred, that their faces would survive but their names go astray. This we see as the huntsman forthrightly thrusts the hare forward in a gesture that foreshadows something of the deliberateness with which Byzantine donors make their offerings as well. Positiveness, thinking out of the box, testing new opportunities, and overcoming my fears are all grounds why I consider myself a professional and interesting person. The representation of Hadrians sacrifice operates in what might be called realist mode, restricting itself to a description of a ceremony such as it might have been seen to take place in the world at a particular moment in time. It speaks not only of the status of the emperor, but is an explanation of that status, telling how it comes to be. Hints of personality are especially evident in seventeenth-century portrayals of less exalted persons, such as Rembrandts portrait of the craftsman Herman Doomer (29.100.1), Velzquezs picture of his assistant Juan de Pareja (1971.86), and Rubens seductive likeness of a woman who may have been his sister-in-law (1976.218). Figure 1.15: Monk Theophanes before the Virgin, The Gospel of Theophanes, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Felton Bequest, 1960 (7105), fol. Alexios shows no deference. It is perhaps also the case that the regal appearance of the emperors here, in comparison with the earlier ones, was rendered possible by the fact that in this panel the central figure of Christ has been replaced by the Virgin. 2), The Glory of Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era, AD 8431261, The Mosaics of Hagia Sophia at Istanbul: Third Preliminary Report, Work Done in 19351938: The Imperial Portraits of the South Gallery, The Emperor at St Sophia: Viewer and Viewed, Byzance et les images: cycle de confrences organis au muse du Louvre par le Service culturel du 5 octobre au 7 dcembre 1992, The Display of Accumulated Wealth in Luxury Icons: Gift-Giving from the Byzantine Aristocracy to God in the Twelfth Century, : , , The Presentation Copies of the Panoplia Dogmatica (Moscow, Gos. 39 On the manuscript and its miniatures, see K. Lake and S. Lake, Dated Greek Minuscule Manuscripts to the Year 1200, 10 vols. [15], A particular convention in illuminated manuscripts was the "presentation portrait", where the manuscript began with a figure, often kneeling, presenting the manuscript to its owner, or sometimes the owner commissioning the book. They are your audience, the people reading your direct mail, visiting your website, or following you on social media. John Oliver Hand, Catherine Metzger, Ron Spronk; https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Donor_portrait&oldid=1146536408. @kindle.com emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply. To round out this examination of the chief characteristics of contact portraits, a further remarkable feature deserves comment. Urbin. Gradually these traditions worked their way down the social scale, especially in illuminated manuscripts, where they are often owner portraits, as the manuscripts were retained for use by the person commissioning them. 666), Thirty-Fourth Annual Byzantine Studies Conference. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. It shouldnt, because Gwendolyn Giver never existed. Reading the images together, then, they seem to be declaring that the book from which the emperor reads is grounded upon the writings of this most august group of luminaries. (Zurich: Artemis, 198199), vol. [5], When a whole building was financed, a sculpture of the patron might be included on the facade or elsewhere in the building. The Mosaics of the Southern Vestibule, Gifts and Prayers: The Visualization of Gift-Giving in Byzantium and the Mosaics at Hagia Sophia, The Languages of Gift in the Early Middle Ages, Architecture and Ornamental Mosaics in the South Vestibule of St Sophia at Istanbul: The Secret Door of the Patriarchate and the Imperial Entrance to the Great Church, Sacred Fortress: Byzantine Art and Statecraft in Ravenna, Writing in Gold: Byzantine Society and its Icons, The Monastery of Saint Catherine at Mount Sinai: The Icons, Byzantium in the Iconoclast Period (ca. In courtly settings, portraits often had diplomatic significance. [27], Donor portraits in works for churches, and over-prominent heraldry, were disapproved of by clerical interpreters of the vague decrees on art of the Council of Trent, such as Saint Charles Borromeo,[28] but survived well into the Baroque period, and developed a secular equivalent in history painting, although here it was often the principal figures who were given the features of the commissioner. There are, however, three more scenes that seem to fall rather more definitively into the ambit of imperial donor or contact portraits that require further examination. Would it make a difference to your charity comms? The more we look at the Dragutin and Oliver scenes, however, the less they appear to concern a true donation, and the more appropriate the term ktetor seems to be. Figure 1.7: Church Fathers, Panoplia Dogmatica, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican, gr. There is thus not much by way of personal contact between the figures, nor is there any real sense of a donation taking place. Not sure if youve got the right information to work with? 1.11).Footnote 18. In this, the imperial ktetor portrait shows its structural relation to the imperial coronation, where a similar, though even stronger, direction of narrative as well as power flow is established, starting with Christ, passing down through the emperor, and then radiating out over the subject observers. Oliver (Fig. Let us begin with this one. The person presenting might be a courtier making a gift to his prince, but is often the author or the scribe, in which cases the recipient had actually paid for the manuscript.[16]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. [21] In narrative scenes they began to be worked into the figures of the scene depicted, perhaps an innovation of Rogier van der Weyden, where they can often be distinguished by their expensive contemporary dress.

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