It is Kenya that does not want Somalis in Kenya.Footnote10, Even in colonial times, the Somali population of British East Africa was treated differently from other inhabitants. If you are coming from a very different background, its difficult to match the same level. In the multi-ethnic state of Kenya, many are subjected to this ambiguous citizenship: Asians, white Kenyans, Nubians, or Arabs. 13. McIntosh, Autochthony and Family, 257. 14. ), fresh water lake(s): Lake Victoria (shared with Tanzania and Uganda) - 62,940 sq kmsalt water lake(s): Lake Turkana (shared with Ethiopia) - 6,400 sq km, Atlantic Ocean drainage: (Mediterranean Sea) Nile (3,254,853 sq km), population heavily concentrated in the west along the shore of Lake Victoria; other areas of high density include the capital of Nairobi, and in the southeast along the Indian Ocean coast as shown in this population distribution map, recurring drought; flooding during rainy seasons, volcanism: limited volcanic activity; the Barrier (1,032 m) last erupted in 1921; South Island is the only other historically active volcano, the Kenyan Highlands comprise one of the most successful agricultural production regions in Africa; glaciers are found on Mount Kenya, Africa's second highest peak; unique physiography supports abundant and varied wildlife of scientific and economic value; Lake Victoria, the world's largest tropical lake and the second largest fresh water lake, is shared among three countries: Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, Kikuyu 17.1%, Luhya 14.3%, Kalenjin 13.4%, Luo 10.7%, Kamba 9.8%, Somali 5.8%, Kisii 5.7%, Mijikenda 5.2%, Meru 4.2%, Maasai 2.5%, Turkana 2.1%,non-Kenyan 1%, other 8.2% (2019 est. But the Somali dwellers outside North Eastern Province were those who really suffered.Footnote20, Although the emergency regulations persisted until the early 1990s, the northeastern region and its inhabitants became gradually more included into the Kenyan state.Footnote21 After a foiled coup in 1982, President Moi incorporated Somali elites into his apparatus to secure his power base,Footnote22 enabling some of them to make a career in the state administration. On the massacre see also TJRC, Final Report 2A, 221367, and Sheikh, Blood on the Runway. Although 80% of Kenya is Christian, its Muslim populationwhich accounts for about 9-10% of the populationis largely concentrated on its eastern coast as well as on the border with Somalia. Hassan, a successful business man in his late 40s, who was born in the North Eastern Province, but has lived in Nakuru for almost 20 years, told me: All are Kenyans and the culture is closer. In these cases, however, the main difference is also created by the context of socialization. See for instance the 2016 exhibition Who I Am, Who We Are in Nairobi and an article in the Daily Nation discussing this exhibition. Aminas story makes visible the relevance of family ties linking Somalia and Kenya. )exports: 0 metric tons (2020 est. 51. the song Narudi nyumbani/coming home by Nameless, written in 2010 as a tribute to Kenyan sportspeople who represent (their) nation), advertisements (such as Niko na Safaricom/I have Safaricom, a mobile network operator in Kenya) and TV shows.Footnote43 Furthermore, the idea was at the core of civil society initiatives. This is especially pronounced in the case of urbanized Somalis living outside the northeastern region. Kenya's young and growing population presents a huge market for investors. About 95% of them are Muslim. ), Kenyan shillings (KES) per US dollar -109.638 (2021 est. [3] While she had never before mentioned Somalia, one day she told me that a friend of the family was stopping by more frequently in the last time and it seemed he just wanted to see her. Interviews with Amina, 2010, and with Ijaabo, Mombasa, August 2016. Interview with Waez, Nairobi, October 2010. ), municipal: 500 million cubic meters (2020 est. Kenya Population Census 1962, 34-5. Both solutions are characterized by instability and insecurity. In 2013 it was merged with the Ministry of Devolution and Planning. Burns, Feeling the Pinch; HRW, Death and Disappearances, 14, Lind et al., Killing a Mosquito, 2, 10. All Somalis were required to register and to prove their belonging, consolidating their position as ambiguous citizens.Footnote17 The various counterinsurgency measures taken by the Kenyan state had severe economic impacts and to this day, the northeastern region remains one of the least developed, producing a dual exclusion of both the region and its people,Footnote18 with the regular internal checkpoint in Garissa still resembling a border station to Kenya for many Somalis.Footnote19, Outside of the northeastern region, urbanized Kenyan Somalis also felt marginalized: they were not only held responsible for the secessionist movement, but also lost the socio-economic status they had occupied in pre-independence society. Lochery, Rendering Difference Visible, 616. )101.302 (2018 est. Otherwise the background can have a very big impact on somebodys life.Footnote95. On the one hand Kenyan Somalis are in a particularly vulnerable position as they are under threat of arrest and deportation, on the other hand they are perceived as overwhelming in numbers and as more dangerous to the status quo due to their greater visibility in the economic and political sphere. relatively successful government counter-insurgency campaign - have exhausted the local Ethiopian-Somali population sufficiently to push the ONLF back to the table. Even though other communities, such as Maasai, Kalenjin, or Luo likewise spread over national borders, Kenyan Somali Members of Parliament lamented repeatedly that Kenya treats its Somali citizens differently than those other groups.Footnote90 The notion of pastoralism can, however, also serve as a binding element, as the elections 2013 showed. New Modes in the Struggle Over Citizenship and Belonging in Africa and Europe, The Fourth Point: An Examination of the Influence of Kenyan Somalis in Somalia, Decentralisation in Kenya: The Governance of Governors, Planning, Property and Plots At the Gateway to Kenyas New Frontier, Somalia Rising: Things are Starting to Change for the Worlds Longest Failed State, The Checkered History of the Somali in Kenya. Islam is also one of the elements dividing Kenyan Somalis from the Christian majority. Kenyan Somalis from the northeastern region also explained their Kenyanness with cultural differences to Somalians. 30. Amina, a young woman in her early 20s, was born in Nakuru. 55. ), exceptional shortfall in aggregate food production/supplies: due to drought conditions - about 4.4 million people were projected to be severely acutely food insecure between October and December 2022 reflecting consecutive poor rainy seasons since late 2020 that affected crop and livestock production; prices of maize are at high levels across the country due to reduced availabilities and high fuel prices inflating production and transportation costs (2023), municipal solid waste generated annually: 5,595,099 tons (2010 est. ), Uganda 14%, Pakistan 8%, Netherlands 8%, United States 8%, United Kingdom 7% (2020), tea, cut flowers, refined petroleum, gold, coffee (2020), $21.853 billion (2021 est.) Citizenship does, however, not only mean a formal affiliation to the state. The region has an overall low population density and is home to Somali-speaking nomadic pastoralists. 8. Ambiguous citizenship, as a concept, not only hints at the changing politics of the Kenyan state concerning its Somali citizens and the manifold ways in which Kenyan Somalis react to it, but it also takes into consideration the various roles Kenyan Somalis play in society. In high school she played soccer, and she likes walking around in town, even though people recurrently whisper walaal in her direction.Footnote106 For some time, she had a Nubian boyfriend nobody knew about. No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. The term ambiguous citizens seems to capture this situation better than the often-used expression second class citizens, as it carries the notion of uncertainty and the undetermined, as well as the emotional side of citizenship, going beyond a purely legal definition. The term furthermore encompasses the diverse roles in which Kenyan Somalis can find themselves: as marginalized citizens in the northeastern region, as high-ranking politicians, as businesspeople in the metropoles and as urbanized (lower) middle class Kenyans. )agricultural: 3.23 billion cubic meters (2020 est. Chau, The Fourth Point, 308. M. Otsialo, Kenya-Somalia fence to keep away unwanted elements, says Mandera governor Ali Roba. Daily Nation, 2 December 2016. http://www.nation.co.ke/counties/mandera/Kenya-Somalia-border-fence/1183298-3472166-hyn3f6z/. 44. )industry: 17.8% (2017 est. These centers traded with the outside world, including China, India, Indonesia, the Middle East, North Africa, and Persia. )proven reserves: 0 metric tons (2019 est. These discourses about Kenyanness carry a notion of citizenship in a broader sense.Footnote44 It is not only a matter of nationality, but also of belonging to, and participating in, society. Fifty years of abuse and neglect is too long to endure. McIntosh, Autochthony and Family, 253. 57. See also Menkhaus, Conflict Assessment, 94 and 110. Wiesmann, Kiteme and Mwangi, Socio-Economic Atlas, 122128. According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), Somalia ranks as fourth-lowest in gender equality 41 . These clashes revived the discussion over what it means to be Kenyan, yet who is imagined as belonging to the nation, and to what degree, remains a situational matter. After a series of attacks on Kenyan soil carried out by the militant Somalian movement al-Shabaab, its Kenyan affiliate al-Hijra or actors claiming proximity to these groups, the Kenyan security apparatus reacted with heavy-handed measures, especially targeting ethnic Somalis living in Kenya.Footnote66 Kenyas Operation Linda Nchi (Protect the country) in October 2011, intended to push back al-Shabaab fighters from southern Somalia,Footnote67 was followed by a series of retaliatory attacks by al-Shabaab, often carried out in areas inhabited by ethnic Somalis. )wine: 0.04 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est. But counting ethnic affiliation also created opportunities for the negotiation of belonging to Kenya. Register a free Taylor & Francis Online account today to boost your research and gain these benefits: Ambiguous citizens: Kenyan Somalis and the question of belonging, Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology, Department Integration and Conflict, Halle (Saale), Germany, Accidental Citizens: Etherealizing Securitized Identities of Somalis in Kenya; Contesting Representation, Identity and Belonging, Marginal Actors? Ambiguous citizens: Kenyan Somalis and . Making citizens in Kenya after the post-election violence of 20072008, Race and cultural citizenship as two dimensions of Kenyanness, Conclusion: Kenyan Somalis and the question of belonging, http://www.unhcr.org/ke/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2018/01/Kenya-Operation-Factsheet-December-2017-.pdf, http://www.nation.co.ke/oped/Opinion/Kenyan-Somalis-treated-like-second-class-citizens-/440808-2277348-pj74alz/index.html, http://www.nation.co.ke/lifestyle/lifestyle/Echoes-of-nationhood-in-the-Silent-Room/1214-3046604-shee9bz/index.html, http://www.nation.co.ke/oped/Opinion/Census-data-on-Kenyan-Asians-raises-more-questions-than-answers-/440808-1004396-v1yqaw/index.html, www.knbs.or.ke/index.php?Option=com_content&view=article&id=151:ethnic-affiliation&catid=112&Itemid=638, http://www.nation.co.ke/oped/Letters/440806-639674-8crbl7z/index.html, http://www.nation.co.ke/news/How-North-Eastern-figures-went-wrong-/1056-1001530-1d3tow/index.html, http://www.nation.co.ke/news/High-Court-cancels-closure-of-Dabaab/1056-3806030-7enmgdz/index.html, http://www.nation.co.ke/news/-Dadaab-Uhuru-Kenyatta-UN-Antonio-Guterres/1056-3841890-2qvff6z/index.html, http://www.nation.co.ke/counties/mandera/Kenya-Somalia-border-fence/1183298-3472166-hyn3f6z/, http://www.nation.co.ke/news/politics/Security-laws-illegal-declares-High-Court/1064-2633342-jw2qp1/index.html, http://securityassistance.org/data/country/military/country/2011/2018/is_all/Africa, http://www.nation.co.ke/news/How-Abdul-Haji-rescued-Westgate-hostages/1056-2007316-5ol57g/index.html, https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/kenya0716web_1.pdf, https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/insult_to_injury.pdf. My thanks go to James Carrier, David OKane, John Eidson and Keren Weitzberg for their fruitful comments and to Fatma A. Hassan for her help during fieldwork in Kenya. 103. 96. ), production: 0 metric tons (2020 est. Lochery, Rendering Difference Visible, 617. The post-election violence of 20072008, during which more than 1,000 Kenyans died and more than 300,000 were displaced, resulted in heightened perceptions to rebuild the country as a nation of diversity. Turton, The Isaq Somali Diaspora, 343. A shrinking presence of the state and the proliferation of small arms destabilized the region. 3. The report argues . The situation of an Ogaden born in Kenya is very different from the one of an Ogaden born in Kismayo from one born in Region 5. 113. . During the Wagalla massacre in 1984, for instance, between 1,000 and 5,000 Somalis were killed by security personnel, demonstrating a continuity of military and state policy towards the north.Footnote23 Yet despite the violence of the Kenyan state in the northeastern region, Lewis could write in the late 1980s The large Somali community in Northern Kenyatends tobe quite firmly integrated into Kenya.Footnote24. The 2009 census was accompanied by plans for the devolution of power and resources, strengthening the importance of the local. Turton, The Isaq Somali Diaspora, 327. Because I realized this land was different from the land we were born in.Footnote94 Even though he often spoke about the marginalization of urbanized Kenyan Somalis, he emphasized attending public celebrations of Kenyan national holidays, such as the Madaraka day (in commemoration of Kenyas internal self-rule in 1963). 41. When applying the population growth of Kenya (3.2%), a conservative approach ignoring the high number in children in many Somali families, to the census figures from 1962 (about 270,000 counted as Somali), one should have expected to count about 640,000 people. Whittaker, A New Model Village, 120. With nearly 53.8 million inhabitants, Kenya ranks among the 10 most populated nations in Africa. )note: data are in 2017 dollars, 6.11% (2021 est. This makes it more difficult for the vast majority of Somalis not involved in these movements to claim their Kenyanness. McIntosh, Autochthony and Family, 265. There had been warnings that were not taken seriously concerning the attacks on the Westgate Mall (2013), the coastal town Mpeketoni close to Lamu (2014), as well as on the Garissa University College (2015).Footnote69 Moreover, when the Kenyan security apparatus reacted, it did so in an incoherent and chaotic way.Footnote70 Instead of improving coordination between the multiple security agencies, political actors responded in the same manner as before by blaming terrorism on Somali refugees in particular and the Somali inhabitants of Kenya in general, externalizing insecurity by utilizing the image of Somalis as ambiguous citizens, ignoring that many of the attackers were neither Kenyan Somalis nor Somali nationals.Footnote71. Some perceive Somalis as doing better than other Muslims in Kenya, economically and politically.Footnote41. ), water pollution from urban and industrial wastes; water shortage and degraded water quality from increased use of pesticides and fertilizers; flooding; water hyacinth infestation in Lake Victoria; deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; poaching, party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping-London Convention, Marine Dumping-London Protocol, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whalingsigned, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements, particulate matter emissions: 25.85 micrograms per cubic meter (2016 est. [citation needed] Administration [ edit] In the multi-ethnic state of Kenya, there are other groups as well who are ambiguous citizens including Asians, Whites, Nubians and Arabs for whom two main dimensions along which Kenyanness is constructed come into the foreground: a racial dimension and a cultural dimension. )2.83% of GDP (2019 est. note: data are in current year dollars$20.408 billion (2019 est. Interview with Mzee Jamal, Nakuru, November, 2010. )forest: 6.1% (2018 est. ), conventional long form: Republic of Kenyaconventional short form: Kenyalocal long form: Republic of Kenya (English)/ Jamhuri ya Kenya (Swahili)local short form: Kenyaformer: British East Africaetymology: named for Mount Kenya; the meaning of the name is unclear but may derive from the Kikuyu, Embu, and Kamba words "kirinyaga," "kirenyaa," and "kiinyaa" - all of which mean "God's resting place", name: Nairobigeographic coordinates: 1 17 S, 36 49 Etime difference: UTC+3 (8 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time)etymology: the name derives from the Maasai expression meaning "cool waters" and refers to a cold water stream that flowed through the area in the late 19th century, 47 counties; Baringo, Bomet, Bungoma, Busia, Elgeyo/Marakwet, Embu, Garissa, Homa Bay, Isiolo, Kajiado, Kakamega, Kericho, Kiambu, Kilifi, Kirinyaga, Kisii, Kisumu, Kitui, Kwale, Laikipia, Lamu, Machakos, Makueni, Mandera, Marsabit, Meru, Migori, Mombasa, Murang'a, Nairobi City, Nakuru, Nandi, Narok, Nyamira, Nyandarua, Nyeri, Samburu, Siaya, Taita/Taveta, Tana River, Tharaka-Nithi, Trans Nzoia, Turkana, Uasin Gishu, Vihiga, Wajir, West Pokot, Jamhuri Day (Independence Day), 12 December (1963); note - Madaraka Day, 1 June (1963) marks the day Kenya attained internal self-rule, history: current constitution passed by referendum on 4 August 2010amendments: amendments can be proposed by either house of Parliament or by petition of at least one million eligible voters; passage of amendments by Parliament requires approval by at least two-thirds majority vote of both houses in each of two readings, approval in a referendum by majority of votes cast by at least 20% of eligible voters in at least one half of Kenyas counties, and approval by the president; passage of amendments introduced by petition requires approval by a majority of county assemblies, approval by majority vote of both houses, and approval by the president, mixed legal system of English common law, Islamic law, and customary law; judicial review in the new Supreme Court established by the new constitution, accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations; accepts ICCt jurisdiction, citizenship by birth: nocitizenship by descent only: at least one parent must be a citizen of Kenyadual citizenship recognized: yesresidency requirement for naturalization: 4 out of the previous 7 years, chief of state: President William RUTO (since 13 September 2022); note - the president is both chief of state and head of governmenthead of government: President William RUTO (since 13 September 2022)cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president, subject to confirmation by the National Assemblyelections/appointments: president and deputy president directly elected on the same ballot by qualified majority popular vote for a 5-year term (eligible for a second term); in addition to receiving an absolute majority popular vote, the presidential candidate must also win at least 25% of the votes cast in at least 24 of the 47 counties to avoid a runoff; election last held on 9 August 2022 (next to be held in 2027)election results: 2017: Uhuru KENYATTA reelected president; percent of vote - Uhuru KENYATTA (Jubilee Party) 98.3%, Raila ODINGA (ODM) 1%, other 0.7%; note - Kenya held a previous presidential election on 8 August 2017, but Kenya's Supreme Court on 1 September 2017 nullified the results, citing irregularities; the political opposition boycotted the October vote2013: Uhuru KENYATTA elected president in first round; percent of vote - Uhuru KENYATTA (TNA) 50.1%, Raila ODINGA (ODM) 43.7%, Musalia MUDAVADI (UDF) 4.0%, other 2.2%, description: bicameral Parliament consists of:Senate (68 seats; 47 members directly elected in single-seat constituencies by simple majority vote and 20 directly elected by proportional representation vote - 16 women, 2 representing youth, 2 representing the disabled, and one Senate speaker; members serve 5-year terms)National Assembly (350 seats; 290 members directly elected in single-seat constituencies by simple majority vote, 47 women in single-seat constituencies elected by simple majority vote, and 12 members nominated by the National Assembly - 6 representing youth and 6 representing the disabled, and one Assembly speaker; members serve 5-year terms)elections: Senate - last held on 9 August 2022 (next to be held in August 2027)National Assembly - last held on 9 August 2022 (next to be held in August 2027)election results: Senate - percent of vote by party/coalition - NA; seats by party/coalition - Kenya Kwanza 34; Azimio La Umoja 33; composition - men 47, women 21, percent of women is 31%National Assembly - percent of vote by party/coalition - NA; seats by party/coalition - Azimio La Umoja 173, Kenya Kwanza 161, independent 12, other 3; composition - men 275, women 75, percent of women 21.4%; note - total Parliament percent of women 23%, highest court(s): Supreme Court (consists of chief and deputy chief justices and 5 judges)judge selection and term of office: chief and deputy chief justices nominated by Judicial Service Commission (JSC) and appointed by the president with approval of the National Assembly; other judges nominated by the JSC and appointed by president; chief justice serves a nonrenewable 10-year term or until age 70, whichever comes first; other judges serve until age 70subordinate courts: High Court; Court of Appeal; military courts; magistrates' courts; religious courts, Azimio La UmojaOne Kenya Coalition Party [Raila ODINGA] (includes DAP-K, JP, KANU, KUP, MCC, MDG, ODM, PAA, UDM, UDP, UPA, UPIA, and WDM-K)Amani National Congress or ANC [Musalia MUDAVADI]Chama Cha Kazi or CCK [Moses KURIA]Democratic Action Party or DAP-K [Wafula WAMUNYINYI]Democratic Party or DP [Joseph MUNYAO, Chairman]Forum for the Restoration of DemocracyKenya or FORD-Kenya [Moses WETANGULA]Grand Dream Development Party or GDDP [Fabian KYULE]IndependentsJubilee Party or JP [Uhuru KENYATTA]Kenya African National Union or KANU [Gideon MOI]Kenya Kwanza coalition [William RUTO] (includes ANC, CCK, DP, FORD-Kenya, TSP, and UDA)Kenya Union Party or KUP [John LONYANGAPUO]Maendeleo Chap Chap Party or MCC [Alfred MUTUA]Movement for Democracy and Growth or MDG [David OCHIENG]National Agenda Party or NAP-K [Alfayo AGUFANA]National Ordinary People Empowerment Union or NOPEU [Rodgers MPURU, Secretary General}Orange Democratic Movement or ODM [Raila ODINGA]Pamoja African Alliance or PAA [Amason KINGI]The Service Party or TSP [Mwangi KIUNJURI]United Democratic Alliance or UDA [William RUTO]United Democratic Movement or UDM [Philip MURGOR]United Democratic Party or UDP [Cyrus Jirongo]United Party of Independent Alliance or UPIA [Ukur YATANI]United Progressive Alliance or UPA [Kenneth NYAMWAMU]Wiper Democratic Movement-Kenya or WDM-K [Kalonzo MUSYOKA]note: only parties with seats in the National Assembly and Senate included , ACP, AfDB, ATMIS, AU, C, CD, COMESA, EAC, EADB, FAO, G-15, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCT, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC (NGOs), MIGA, MINUSMA, MONUSCO, NAM, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNAMID, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNISFA, UNMIL, UNMISS, UNSOM, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WHO, WMO, WTO, chief of mission: Ambassador Lazarus Ombai AMAYO (since 17 July 2020)chancery: 1616 P Street NW, Suite 340, Washington, DC 20036telephone: [1] (202) 387-6101FAX: [1] (202) 462-3829email address and website: information@kenyaembassydc.orghttps://kenyaembassydc.org/#consulate(s) general: Los Angelesconsulate(s): New York, chief of mission: Ambassador Margaret "Meg" WHITMAN (since 5 August 2022)embassy: P.O.

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